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<< Click to Display Table of Contents >> Loka – Each Person Perceives the “External World” Differently |
June 16, 2025
Buddha’s description of the “world” (“loka”) is different from the “material world.” The Buddha meant by “loka” the “mental world” of each person. Even though we all experience the same “external world,” each of us perceives (Pāli word is saññā) that “external/material world” differently. That difference is much more amplified between different species (for example, humans compared to animals).
Loka – Not the External World
1. We all live in the same world. In particular, humans and animals share the same material world. It consists of people, a wide variety of animals (and fish in the water), mountains, oceans, rivers, and other natural features.
▪Yet our life experiences are very different. We can observe significant differences between human experiences and those of animals.
▪Even among humans, there are apparent differences. Even if we consider two people with very similar habits and characteristics, their life experiences (via experiencing the same external world) are still very different.
▪That is because each perceives the same external world differently based on one’s character/moral qualities (gati; pronounced “gathi”).
▪While the gati of humans is very different from that of animals, there is a broad spectrum of gati among humans, too.
▪To learn more about gati, see “The Law of Attraction, Habits, Character (Gati), and Cravings (Āsavās)” and “Habits, Goals, and Character (Gati).”
Gati Sutta – Five Major Types of Gati
2. The Buddha divided all sentient beings into five major gati types. The “WebLink: suttacentral: Gati Sutta (AN 9.68)” lists five main categories: Hell (niraya), the animal realm (tiracchāna), the hungry ghost realm (peta), humans (manussa), and the Deva.
▪The first three types of gati correspond to the realms in the apāyās. The fifth, “deva gati,” is assigned to the six Deva realms and Brahmās in the 20 Brahma realms. Many suttās (including Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta) lump the Devās in the six Deva realms and Brahmās in the 20 Brahma realms into one category as Devās.
▪The physical environments in these categories differ from one another. For example, the 20 Brahma realms do not have our physical environment, with mountains, oceans, rivers, etc.
▪While we cannot see beings in most other realms, we can see the animal realm. Those two realms share the same physical environment. Let us examine how humans and animals experience the same environment.
Humans and Animals – Vastly Different Gati
3. Humans, in general, have the ability to change their environment and improve their life experiences. Animals, on the other hand, live their lives “as is”; they don’t have the intelligence to modify their environment to make their lives better.
▪Because of that, animals (in the wild) live miserable lives. Even among humans, those born into better conditions (a wealthy family or higher IQ) tend to have more favorable life experiences than others.
▪Those who are born as animals are born that way because they had “lived like animals,” i.e., they had cultivated “animal gati” during their human lives in the past. Let us discuss some examples.
Animal Gati Versus Human Gati
4. Each human or animal is born according to the gati they had cultivated as a human. This is a critical point.
▪Animals do not cultivate new gati; they only live with the gati they are born with. Just as they cannot change their environment for their benefit (as discussed in #3 above), they are also unable to think intelligently and improve their gati (character or habits) for the better. Once born, an animal can only experience its “fate” and is unable to make it better.
▪Humans, on the other hand, can not only change or modify their environment to improve their lives (for example, build a house for shelter or invent automobiles to travel faster), but they can also change their character and habits to enhance their life experience, i.e., their “mental world.”
▪Those two aspects of human life are interrelated. Let us discuss that next.
Physical Comfort and Mental Experience of a Human
5. To improve their physical environment, humans can purchase luxurious houses, tasty foods, and fancy cars, among other things. Those certainly provide enhanced physical comforts.
▪To afford those, one must have sufficient money. Money can be earned through hard work or theft. Working harder may be stressful. Stealing seems to be less stressful on the surface, but one who steals always lives with the anxiety of “getting caught.” Even otherwise, immoral activities naturally lead to mental stress. For example, illicit sexual activities may seem harmless, but they do lead to mental stress.
▪The Buddha highlighted the long-term adverse consequences of immoral actions. They lead to the accumulation of “kammic energies” that can bring their results (vipāka) in this life or even in future lives. It is easy to see that in obvious immoral activities like killing another human or raping a woman. Those two actions are done with anger and greed, respectively. In the first case, the victim undergoes a huge mental and physical pain, and the vipāka for such an action is the rebirth in a hell with much suffering. Usually, such a mental state for killing another is built up over time, i.e., “vicious gati” are cultivated over time. The latter case of rape, is done with desire but the victim goes through mental and physical suffering; the vipāka could be rebirth as an animal. It is an “animal gati” to engage in such an activity; for example, a dog engages in sex with any other female dog without any discrimination. Cultivation of such “dog gati” can lead to rebirth as a dog.
▪In another example, some people engage in “lowly activities” like taking bribes or using child for slave labor. Such “lowly gati” can lead to rebirth as a pig. As we know, pigs take pleasure in eating garbage and even feces (a vipāka of their previous lowly deeds), which humans deem repulsive.
Gati Lead to Corresponding Rebirths
6. The Buddha described in detail how “kammic energies embedding specific gati” lead to rebirths with corresponding and matching consequences.
▪It is crucial to understand how, as humans, our conscious actions with rāga, dosa, and moha can lead to adverse consequences not only in this life but also in future lives.
▪Humans can cultivate gati suitable for rebirth in any of the 31 realms.
▪We discussed how the cultivation of certain gati leads to bad rebirths in the apāyās, as mentioned in #5 above. In the same way, those who cultivate “deva gati” by engaging in meritorious deeds are likely to be born in a Deva realm. Those who abstain from sensual pleasures and cultivate jhāna can be reborn in Brahma realms.
▪We tend to cultivate specific gati based on how we respond to sensory inputs from the external world. A critical aspect of this is the following. Our responses are based on the perceptions (saññā) that we cultivate. Furthermore, those new births would automatically generate corresponding types of saññā.
Types of Saññā Cultivated Lead to Corresponding Gati
7. A given habit (gati) is cultivated by engaging repeatedly in certain types of actions. For example, if one keeps telling lies, they will become habitual liars. If one likes the taste of alcohol and keeps increasing the intake, they could become alcoholics. An alcoholic develops a perception (saññā) to be attracted to alcohol. Just seeing a bottle of alcohol makes them generate a sense of urge (saññā) to have a drink.
▪Specific sensory inputs trigger corresponding saññā.
▪The sight of a beautiful woman triggers “kāma saññā” in a man, and vice versa. That leads to the instantaneous arising of kāma rāga. Those who follow up with kāma rāga by taking actions (seeking sexual engagements) cultivate kāma rāga and will be more likely to be triggered with similar kāma saññā in the future. That could lead to becoming a “sex addict.”
▪Saññā is a broad category. See “Saññā – What It Really Means.”
Varying Perceptions (Saññā) About the Same External World
8. We can begin by examining the differences between human and animal perceptions (saññā) in general. Although humans and animals experience the same external world, they perceive it in very different ways: their bodies (and the external environment) automatically generate specific types of saññā.
▪Let us discuss sight. Humans see the world in vivid colors. Looking at a garden with blooming flowers or a sunset can bring happiness.
▪In contrast, dogs’ color vision is less vivid than that of humans. Their world is less “attractive” or “appealing.”
▪You can get an idea by comparing modern-day color pictures (or movies) with the black-and-white photographs (and movies) of the past.
▪Thus, the same “external world” causes a base level of “enhanced happiness” in humans compared to many animals.
▪The “superior kammic energies” associated with human births lead to such an “enhanced experience” at the baseline level (Deva and Brahma births/existences are even better). In comparison, animal births are attributed to “inferior kammic energies,” and they experience the same external world of humans differently, at a lower level.
9. Humans are born with an innate desire for sensual pleasures (kāma rāga) based on kāma saññā. A mere glance at a beautiful woman can evoke kāma rāga in a man, and vice versa. It is the built-in kāma saññā that gives rise to kāma rāga.
▪Humans also have cravings for tasty food; this is another version of kāma rāga, based on kāma saññā. We like the taste of honey. Even the sight of honey can trigger a desire to eat some. That is due to kāma saññā arising at the sight of honey.
▪On the other hand, cows or tigers do not like the taste of honey. The sight of honey does not trigger kāma saññā in a cow or a tiger.
▪Cows like to eat grass, but humans don’t; in fact, human bodies cannot digest grass.
▪Those are “identical things in the external world,” providing very different experiences and perceptions (saññā) to humans and animals.
Why Do Humans and Animals Generate Different Saññā?
10. As we saw above, the sight of honey does not trigger kāma saññā in a cow or a tiger, but does so in a human. There are two possible explanations.
i.One is the “mundane explanation,” where the situation is investigated within the laws of nature (such as Newton’s laws of motion and other similar principles discovered in physics, chemistry, and biology).
ii.The other is “super mundane” (lokuttara, or “transcending mundane”) laws of nature discovered by the Buddha. This is also called “paramattha dhamma.” Here, “paramattha” is “parama attha” or the “ultimate truth.”
▪Current widely accepted mundane theories (within this world) are scientific, based on the assumption that studying matter will lead to a comprehensive understanding of nature. Scientists argue that the physical bodies of humans and animals have “evolved” to become what they are today. They pay no attention to mental phenomena. They say mental effects are secondary. For example, they claim that human mental activities are generated in the brain, which is composed of atoms and molecules. They have not explained how this is possible; however, several unproven mechanisms have been proposed.
▪In contrast, the Buddha discovered the “ultimate reality of nature” (encompassing both mental and physical phenomena) by focusing on mental phenomena. Thus, it is the polar opposite of the scientific approach.
▪Let us briefly examine the two very different explanations, focusing on the eating habits of humans and animals.
Mundane Explanation
11. The scientific explanation for why humans like sweet taste: Humans are drawn to sweet tastes because of evolutionary pressures that favored energy-rich foods.
▪Evolutionary Advantage: Sweetness signals high-energy, calorie-dense foods, such as fruits, which were critical for survival in ancestral environments where food was scarce. The taste of sugar (glucose, fructose, sucrose) activates reward pathways in the brain, releasing dopamine, which reinforces the desire to seek out sweet foods.
▪Taste Receptors: Humans have specific taste receptors (T1R2 and T1R3) that detect sugars and trigger a pleasurable response. These receptors evolved to identify carbohydrate-rich foods, which provide quick energy for our high-metabolic brains and active lifestyles.
Why Cows Don’t Find Sugar Tasty (But Like Grass): Cows, as ruminant herbivores, have different taste preferences and dietary needs:
▪Taste Perception: Cows have taste buds, but their sensitivity to sweetness is much lower than humans’. Their taste buds are more attuned to detecting compounds in grasses, such as volatile organic compounds or minerals, which signal nutritional value for their rumen-based digestion.
▪Dietary Needs: Cows are adapted to extract energy from fibrous, low-energy grasses through microbial fermentation in their rumen. Sugars, while fermentable, are not a primary energy source in their natural diet. High sugar intake (e.g., from sugarcane) can disrupt the rumen pH and microbial balance, potentially causing digestive issues such as acidosis.
▪Grass Preference: Cows are drawn to grass because it’s their evolutionary food source. The rumen’s microbes produce enzymes, such as cellulase, to break down cellulose in grass into volatile fatty acids (VFAs), which serve as a source of energy. Grass also contains secondary compounds (e.g., terpenes) that cows may find palatable, though not “tasty” in the human sense.
Issues With the Mundane Explanation
12. The above explanations do not address the main criterion.
▪The theory of evolution posits that life forms originated as simple cells and evolved into more complex life forms.
▪But what was the reason that process led to a vast variety of animals? (in Buddha Dhamma, this is due to different types of gati cultivated; see below.)
▪It should have evolved into a single or at least only a few life forms (depending on the specific regions of Earth).
▪Yet, in any given geographic location, we can observe a wide variety of animals.
13. Still, all scientific studies are self-consistent, even though they can only explain material aspects, not mental phenomena.
▪For example, as mentioned in #11, scientists can demonstrate that humans possess specific sensors to detect sucrose molecules, which contribute to the sweetness of honey.
▪In contrast, cows have fewer of them, but they have other types of sensors that are attuned to eating grass.
▪Furthermore, human stomachs cannot digest grass. If we eat grass, we will get sick.
▪On the other hand, cows have a complex mechanism for digesting grass: They have a four-chambered stomach (rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum). The rumen, a large fermentation vat, hosts microbes (bacteria, protozoa, fungi) that produce cellulase to break down cellulose into simple sugars and VFAs, which the cow absorbs for energy. Thus, their theory is self-consistent. However, that does not mean the theory is valid.
▪Why and how did that complex mechanism evolve? What was the need for such a complex mechanism?
Paramattha Dhamma of the Buddha
14. All those questions have answers in Buddha’s teachings. The external world and the sentient beings in it are sustained by the “mental power” or the “kammic energy” of the sentient beings.
▪Each sentient being generates “kammic energy” based on rāga, dosa, and moha.
▪Part of the kammic energy generated by a given sentient being leads to its new rebirths; the rest goes into generating and sustaining the external world. Thus, the collective kammic energies of all sentient beings contribute to maintaining the external world.
▪All that is described via Paṭicca Samuppāda. In the following, I will summarize the basics.
Suddhaṭṭhaka – Elementary Building Block
15. Kammic energy produces suddhaṭṭhaka, the “elementary building block” in Buddha Dhamma. It is analogous to the elementary particles in modern science; however, rather than having many elementary particles as in science, an infinite variety of suddhaṭṭhaka are possible by varying the composition of its eight components.
▪A suddhaṭṭhaka has eight components: the four great elements (pathavi, āpo, tejo, and vāyo) that arise due to avijjā and four more (vaṇṇa, gandha, rasa, oja) due to taṇhā. Those components cannot be separated. Furthermore, a given suddhaṭṭhaka will always have the eight components, but the proportions vary.
▪For example, a stone would have pathavi as the major component, but it would also have at least a trace of the other seven.
▪All eight components of a suddhaṭṭhaka are discussed in Abhidhamma; see “The Origin of Matter – Suddhaṭṭhaka.”
▪However, in the suttās, the last four (vaṇṇa, gandha, rasa, oja) are referred to only as “upādāya rūpa”. As we have discussed, the Abhidhamma theory was not fully developed during the Buddha’s lifetime. See “Abhidhamma – Introduction.”
Mechanism of Generating (Distorted) Saññā
16. Another critical aspect is as follows: We pointed out above that kammic energies are responsible for maintaining the external world and the sentient beings (all composed of suddhaṭṭhaka). That process leads to the generation of “distorted saññā” in the minds of all sentient beings, making them automatically attach to specific sensory inputs.
▪That is why the Buddha said that all sentient beings are deceived by this “distorted saññā” inherent in all sentient beings via Paṭicca Samuppāda. See “Fooled by Distorted Saññā (Sañjānāti) – Origin of Attachment (Taṇhā).”
▪In other words, fully understanding how “distorted saññā” arises helps eliminate avijjā and taṇhā. Thus, Nibbāna is reached via cultivating wisdom (paññā), i.e., fully understanding the above.
17. The four components of vaṇṇa, gandha, rasa, and oja are in higher proportions in the food we consume. For example, the taste of honey (for humans) comes from the rasa component. Furthermore, the rasa component of suddhaṭṭhaka in human bodies is compatible with those in honey, i.e., they must match to generate the “rasa saññā” for humans.
▪On the other hand, cows and grass share the same type of “rasa” component (different from the “rasa” component of suddhaṭṭhaka in humans), leading to “rasa saññā” in cows when they eat grass.
▪I hope that will give the basic idea of how humans and cows generate the appealing “rasa saññā” for different things (honey and grass, respectively).
Composition of Suddhaṭṭhaka Vary According to the Species
18. Therefore, a key part of the puzzle becomes clear when we see that all inert objects (including food as discussed above), as well as the physical and mental bodies of sentient beings, are made of suddhaṭṭhaka created by kammic energy.
▪A key point that emerges from the above discussion is the following: The “rasa component” in the suddhaṭṭhaka in the tongue of a human is very different from that of a cow.
▪In another example, a pig perceives the smell of feces (poop) to be attractive, while humans are repulsed by it. Thus, the gandha component of suddhaṭṭhaka in feces matches that in a pig’s nose to generate an “appealing gandha saññā.” The same gandha component of suddhaṭṭhaka in feces generates a “repulsive gandha saññā” in humans because the gandha component in human suddhaṭṭhaka is very different from that of a pig.
▪In the same way, the vaṇṇa component in suddhaṭṭhaka is responsible for generating various types of “distorted saññā” in different species regarding sights.
▪I hope you can get the basic idea in this very complex process. Paṭicca Samuppāda automatically creates the bodies of sentient beings and the external environment to facilitate this complex matching!
Paṭicca Samuppāda Explains Everything
19. As emphasized above, the whole world (sentient beings and their external environment) is sustained via Paṭicca Samuppāda.
▪Although humans and animals share the same external world, the brief account above explains how they perceive that same environment in very different ways.
▪Human bodies perceive many more “pleasures” out of the same environment compared to animals.
▪Even among animals, there are wide-ranging differences. There are overlapping similarities, too. For example, just like humans, bears like the taste of honey.
Uniqueness of Human Existence
20. Human (manussa) existence is unique in many ways.
▪A human can cultivate gati corresponding to any of the 31 realms, not just the primary five categories mentioned in the Gati Sutta.
▪We can see some humans who behave like Devās: Some engage in giving, helping others, etc., and cultivate gati to be born in the six Deva realms. Others develop (anāriya/Ariya) jhāna corresponding to various Brahma realms and will be reborn in the corresponding Brahma realms.
▪Some humans cultivate “apāyagāmi gati,” which leads to rebirth in the realms of niraya, peta, asura, and animals. Those who develop extreme anger/hate (and thus kill, rape, and abuse others) will be born in the niraya (hell.) Some cultivate extremely greedy gati (and steal, take bribes, etc.) and become destined to the peta realms. An animal bhava has developed, characterized by both greed and hate. An animal bhava has a mixture of both. Since ignorance is also there, they will have all three “saŋ” (that is the root of the word “tirisan = three saŋs” for an animal in Sinhala). See #3 of “Lobha, Dosa, Moha versus Raga, Paṭigha, Avijjā.”
▪Humans can cultivate “human gati” that will allow another human existence in the future. “Human gati” is similar to the gati of Devās in the lower six realms but with an enhanced craving for sensory pleasures.
▪The above is #3 in the post “Cuti and Maraṇa – Related to Bhava and Jāti.”
(Distorted) Saññā Keeps Us Trapped in the Rebirth Process
21. As discussed above, each new existence comes with its characteristic (distorted) saññā.
▪Different species are associated with their unique set of saññā. Both the body of the sentient being and its external environment work in unison to automatically generate that saññā.
▪This is why it is so difficult for us to give up attachment to kāma saññā. It is built-in!
▪It is a good idea to read “Fooled by Distorted Saññā (Sañjānāti) – Origin of Attachment (Taṇhā).” The above discussion would hopefully make it easier to understand.
22. When a given sentient being figures out (fully understands) the above deeper teachings of the Buddha, wisdom (paññā) arises, and one realizes the true nature of the world.
▪The fading away of moha (or avijjā) leads to the loss of one’s cravings for worldly pleasures (rāga), and that also leads to the fading away of moha. At the Arahant stage, the generation of “kammic energy” (based on rāga, dosa, and moha) stops completely.
▪One critical aspect of that is the following. The avijjā (or moha) is not to see the “full picture” of the endless rebirth process based solely on “mind power” or kammic energy.
▪Furthermore, the generation of that kammic energy has roots in (distorted) saññā. That is the message embedded in the “Mūlapariyāya Sutta – The Root of All Things.”
▪Also see “Loka Sutta – Origin and Cessation of the World.” That post also discusses why “loka” is not the external material world, but one’s own “mental world.”
Kāma Rāga Cannot be Eliminated with Willpower
23. If one understood the post, it must be clear that kāma rāga cannot be removed by sheer willpower. It can be done only by understanding how the built-in kāma saññā automatically triggers kāma rāga in us.
▪This is why ancient yogis like Āḷāra Kālāma and Uddaka Rāmaputta (who realized that attachment to sensual pleasures led to suffering) were unable to remove kāma rāga. They forcefully abstained from sensual pleasures by retreating deep into jungles but were unable to eliminate kāma rāga. See “Sandiṭṭhiko – What Does It Mean?”
▪Furthermore, in the modern society with so much sensuality around us, one could be depressed if one tried to suppress kāma rāga willfully.
▪One cannot remove the (distorted) saññā because it is built into our bodies. Even Arahants taste the sweetness of honey. They did not abstain from eating honey while striving for the Arahanthood. They cultivated paññā and realized that it was an illusion in the “ultimate reality” discovered by the Buddha. That understanding led to the breaking of the kāma rāga saṁyojana. They can live among beautiful women in luxurious palaces without generating a trace of kāma rāga.
▪While it may not be necessary to understand the role of the (distorted) saññā to attain the Sotāpanna stage, it could make it easier.